God's Existence: A Biblical and Historical Exploration
Introduction
A few weeks ago, my atheist friend asked me to have a discussion with him about the existence of God. I was surprised because he was not an atheist before. He is my long-time friend in Christ, and we were baptized together in 2014 by our district pastor.
So I asked him, "What year did you begin embracing atheistic views?" According to him, it was sometime in 2018 when he started studying atheism. Instead of studying God’s goodness, blessings, and grace, he began focusing on atheistic ideas and started planting doubt in his mind, questioning whether God truly exists.
In this article, we are going to examine the evidence for God’s existence—both biblical and historical.
I do not know exactly what happened to my friend or why he embraced the idea that there is no God who created the universe. Before, he was a man inspired by Scripture—strong in his faith, ready to defend God and His teachings.
One thing I do know is that the Bible clearly says in 2 Timothy 3:7–8:
"Ever learning, and never able to come to the knowledge of the truth. Now as Jannes and Jambres withstood Moses, so do these also resist the truth: men of corrupt minds, reprobate concerning the faith." (KJV)
Scripture also reminds us that when people remove God from their thinking, it leads to spiritual emptiness rather than wisdom:
“So are the paths of all who forget God; and the hope of the hypocrite shall perish.” (Job 8:13, NKJV)
And again:
“The fool says in his heart, ‘There is no God.’” (Psalm 53:1, NIV)
These verses do not insult unbelievers, but simply express the biblical reality that rejecting God leads a person away from truth, hope, and ultimate meaning.
In Scripture, the word “fool” does not mean unintelligent, but one who rejects God’s wisdom.
Understanding the Question: Does God Really Exist?
The question of God’s existence has echoed across centuries. Philosophers, scientists, theologians, and ordinary people have wrestled with it. Today, with the rise of atheism and skepticism, many are revisiting this age-old question with fresh intensity. But the evidence for God does not rest solely on blind faith. Rather, it is supported by logic, reason, history, morality, and human experience.
In this blog post, we will explore key categories of evidence that point toward the existence of a Divine Creator.
1. Cosmological Evidence — The Universe Had a Beginning
Modern science affirms that the universe had a beginning—commonly known as the Big Bang. Anything that begins to exist must have a cause. This cause must be:
- timeless
- immaterial
- powerful
- not dependent on the universe
These attributes align with the traditional understanding of God. This is known as the Cosmological Argument, a rational proof used even by Christian apologists like William Lane Craig.
Some atheists suggest that the universe does not require a Creator because it can be explained as self-causing or self-originating. For example, Stephen Hawking proposed that because laws like gravity exist, the universe could spontaneously create itself “from nothing.” Other atheists, like Peter Atkins, claim that space-time or even mathematics brought the universe into existence on its own.
However, these explanations raise serious problems. To say the universe came from “nothing” while still assuming the prior existence of laws like gravity is contradictory—because gravity itself is something. If the laws of physics already exist before the universe, then the question remains: where did those laws come from, and why do they exist at all? And more importantly, physical laws are not agents—they don’t do or cause anything. Gravity describes how matter behaves; it does not create matter.
Furthermore, proposals like multiple universes or spontaneous self-creation have no observational evidence and cannot be tested or verified, placing them closer to speculation than science. Isaac Newton, who formulated the law of universal gravitation, also recognized that the laws of nature describe how the universe behaves but do not explain its ultimate origin; in the General Scholium of the Principia, he affirmed that the orderly system of the heavens “could only proceed from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful Being.
These philosophical and scientific difficulties reinforce the classical cosmological point: the universe began to exist, and whatever begins to exist requires a cause beyond itself—something timeless, powerful, and independent of the universe.
2. Fine-Tuning Evidence — The Universe Is Designed
The physical constants of the universe (gravity, electromagnetism, expansion rate, and more) are so precisely set (balanced) that even non-religious scientists acknowledge how astonishing this is. If any of these forces were even slightly different, stars, planets, and life could not exist. This remarkable precision points strongly toward design rather than blind chance. The Fine-Tuning Argument rests on science, not Scripture.
Far from disproving God, modern scientific discoveries have pushed several prominent atheists and scientists to rethink their assumptions. The astronomer Fred Hoyle—once a strong critic of the Big Bang—admitted that the conditions needed to form essential elements like carbon appear deliberately arranged. He famously suggested that the universe looks as if a “superintelligence” shaped the laws of nature.
Scientists have long recognized how extraordinarily delicate these laws are. If gravity, electromagnetism, or the masses of subatomic particles were adjusted even slightly, life would be impossible. A tiny change in the universe’s expansion rate would prevent stars and planets from forming. Even a small alteration in the strong nuclear force—less than one percent—would wipe out the possibility of life altogether. This precision has led many thinkers to conclude that the universe is “just right” in ways that defy simple naturalistic explanations.
Former leading atheist Antony Flew changed his mind partly because of this evidence. He argued that the mathematical order and interconnectedness of nature point to a guiding Mind behind the universe. Physicist Paul Davies has made a similar observation: science assumes the universe is deeply rational and orderly, and that order seems rooted in something beyond blind physical processes. He argues that life and consciousness appear written into the very structure of the universe, not produced by accident.
Many philosophers and physicists — including Paul Davies and Robin Collins — note that multiverse proposals remain highly speculative and currently lack direct observational support. Because such universes cannot be tested or observed, critics argue that the multiverse functions more as a philosophical response to design rather than a scientific explanation.
Even world-class mathematicians and physicists such as Roger Penrose have remarked that the universe seems purposeful rather than accidental. Many pioneers of quantum physics—including Heisenberg, Planck, Schrödinger, Pauli, and Eddington—were not atheists. Far from seeing science and spirituality as enemies, they believed the two together offered a fuller understanding of reality. Their writings reflect the idea that scientific discovery often reveals a deeper, rational order that points beyond the material world.
Taken together, these reflections support the Fine-Tuning Argument: the universe’s structure is so delicately balanced and mathematically ordered that chance alone is an insufficient explanation. Design—an intelligent cause behind the cosmos—remains the most reasonable conclusion.
3. Moral Evidence — Objective Morality Requires a Moral Lawgiver
Humanity universally recognizes moral values: honesty is good, murder is wrong, justice matters, and compassion is virtuous. These moral truths are not merely cultural preferences or personal opinions—they are recognized across societies and throughout history. If humans were only accidental products of blind natural processes, then morality would be subjective, changing from person to person or culture to culture. Yet we instinctively know that some actions are truly right and others truly wrong, regardless of time, place, or opinion. This points to a higher moral source—God.
Many atheists say, “I don’t need God to be a good person,” which even my atheist friend agrees with, and in one sense that is true (good in the human sense; cf. Isaiah 64:6). A person can perform good deeds without believing in God. However, the deeper question is not whether someone can act morally, but what makes an action truly good or evil in the first place. Without God as an objective moral standard, moral values reduce to personal feelings or social agreements. What one person calls “good,” another may call “bad.” Without a higher authority, morality becomes opinion.
If morality were merely a product of society, then no culture could ever be morally wrong. Practices like slavery, genocide, or human sacrifice could be justified simply because a society approved of them. Yet we rightly condemn such actions as evil—even when entire cultures once defended them. This shows that moral law stands above human societies, not beneath them.
Science, valuable as it is, cannot solve this problem. Science can describe how people behave, but it cannot tell us how people ought to behave. It deals with facts, not values. Even non-Christian philosophers have admitted that science alone cannot provide moral meaning. When God is removed, moral obligation loses its foundation.
Evolution also fails to explain objective morality. Evolution promotes survival, not moral duty. “Survival of the fittest” favors strength and self-interest, yet we admire self-sacrifice, compassion, and mercy—qualities that often run against survival instincts. The fact that we praise such virtues shows that morality is more than biology.
Despite denying God, many atheists still affirm real moral values like justice, love, and human dignity. But by affirming objective morality, they unknowingly affirm the need for a Moral Lawgiver. If there is no God—if reality is nothing more than atoms and chemistry—then right and wrong would be nothing more than personal preference. Yet we all live as if some things are truly evil and others truly good.
This universal moral law points beyond humanity to a source higher than humanity. Objective morality makes the most sense if there is an objective Moral Lawgiver—and that Lawgiver is God.
4. Historical Evidence — Jesus Christ and the Resurrection
Even secular and non-Christian historians agree on several foundational facts about Jesus of Nazareth:
- Jesus existed as a real historical figure.
- He was executed by crucifixion under Roman authority during the governorship of Pontius Pilate.
- His disciples sincerely believed that He rose from the dead and appeared to them.
- Christianity spread rapidly in the very city where Jesus was crucified, despite intense persecution.
These points are accepted not because of blind faith, but because they are supported by early historical sources—both Christian and non-Christian.
One of the strongest pieces of evidence is the early resurrection creed found in 1 Corinthians 15:3–7. Even critical scholars acknowledge that this creed dates[1] to within a few years—possibly months—after Jesus’ death. This means belief in the resurrection was not a later legend, but part of the earliest Christian proclamation. The disciples were not gradually convinced over generations; they were proclaiming the resurrection immediately.
Christian apologist William Lane Craig has argued that the resurrection of Jesus is best explained by four key historical facts:
(1) Jesus’ burial,
(2) the discovery of the empty tomb,
(3) early eyewitness testimony claiming resurrection appearances, and
(4) the dramatic transformation of the disciples.
Naturalistic explanations fail to account for all four together, whereas the resurrection explains them coherently.
Lee Strobel, a former atheist and former investigative journalist, highlights similar evidence in his journey to faith. He points especially to Jesus’ execution by Roman authorities, the very early reports of the resurrection, and the empty tomb. These facts are difficult to dismiss, particularly since the resurrection was proclaimed in Jerusalem, where the tomb could have been checked. Had Jesus’ body still been there, Christianity would have ended immediately.
The sincerity of the disciples also matters. These men were not seeking power or wealth. Instead, they faced imprisonment, torture, and death. While people may die for beliefs that are false, they do not willingly suffer and die for what they know to be a lie. The disciples were in a position to know whether the resurrection was true or fabricated—and they stood by their testimony at great personal cost.
Jesus’ own words further strengthen the case. In Matthew 24, He predicted[2] the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple—a prophecy fulfilled in A.D. 70. This fulfillment lends credibility to His claims, including His prediction of His own death and resurrection. If Jesus was right about the fall of Jerusalem, it is reasonable to take His resurrection claim seriously.
Beyond historical testimony, the death of Jesus also aligns strikingly with ancient Jewish prophecy. Isaiah 53, written approximately 700 years before Christ, describes a suffering servant who would be rejected, pierced, crushed for the sins of others, silent before His accusers, and assigned a grave with the wicked yet associated with the rich in His death. These details correspond closely to Jesus’ execution: His rejection by His own people, His crucifixion, His silence before Pilate, and His burial in the tomb of a wealthy man, Joseph of Arimathea.
What makes Isaiah 53 especially significant is that it predates Christianity and is preserved in Jewish manuscripts, including the Dead Sea Scrolls. This means the prophecy was not written after the fact to fit Jesus’ life. Instead, Jesus’ death unfolded in a way that matched a prophecy already regarded as Scripture long before the events occurred. This convergence of prophecy and history strengthens the claim that Jesus’ crucifixion was not an accident of history but part of the divine plan.
Taken together—early eyewitness testimony, the empty tomb, fulfilled prophecy, the transformation and martyrdom of the disciples, and the explosive growth of Christianity—the resurrection of Jesus stands as the best historical explanation. And if Jesus truly rose from the dead, then God exists, and Jesus’ claims about Himself are true.
5. Experiential Evidence — Billions Have Encountered God
Human experience across every culture and century testifies to the reality of God. Countless people report encounters with God through:
- answered prayer
- miraculous intervention
- deep moral and spiritual transformation
- an overwhelming awareness of God’s presence
6. Prophecy of Daniel 2
In Daniel chapter 2, King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon had a disturbing dream of a huge statue made of different materials—gold, silver, bronze, iron, and clay. God revealed the meaning to Daniel: each section represented a successive world empire or kingdom.
“But there is a God in heaven who reveals secrets, and He has made known to King Nebuchadnezzar what will happen in the latter days…” (Daniel 2:28, NKJV)
This prophecy outlines the entire flow of world history—over 2,500 years—with remarkable accuracy.
The statue that King Nebuchadnezzar saw represented the kingdoms that would rise and rule the earth throughout history.
The Head of Gold Represents Babylon (626-539 B.C.)
“You, O king, are a king of kings. For the God of heaven has given you a kingdom, power, strength, and glory; 38 and wherever the children of men dwell, or the beasts of the field and the birds of the heaven, He has given them into your hand, and has made you ruler over them all—you are this head of gold.” (Daniel 2:37, 38, NKJV)
The head of gold represents the Neo-Babylonian Empire under kings such as Nebuchadnezzar II. Babylon ruled from 626–539 B.C., reaching its height under Nebuchadnezzar, whose kingdom extended across Mesopotamia, Judah, Syria, and parts of Egypt. Historians consistently recognize this period as one of great political strength and cultural splendor.
Herodotus even describes the temple of Babylon as richly decorated with golden objects — including golden statues and sacred vessels — which matches the imagery of Babylon as the “golden” kingdom. See Jeremiah 51:7
The Babylonian Empire eventually came to an end when Cyrus the Great and the Medo-Persian armies captured the city in 539 B.C. Ancient historians record that the Persians diverted the Euphrates River into a nearby basin, lowering the water level so that soldiers could march under the walls through the riverbed at night and take the city by surprise. Writers such as Herodotus, George Rawlinson, and Humphrey Prideaux all describe this event, closely corresponding with the biblical account of Babylon’s sudden fall in Daniel 5.
Some earlier Christian historians — including Humphrey Prideaux — also identified “Darius the Mede” with Cyaxares II, whom Xenophon describes as ruling jointly with Cyrus after the conquest. While this view supports the setting described in Daniel, many modern scholars continue to discuss the exact historical identity of Darius the Mede.
Historians also note that during the final years of Babylon, King Nabonidus shared royal authority with his son Belshazzar. This explains why the Book of Daniel refers to Belshazzar as “king,” even though Nabonidus was still alive. Archaeological inscriptions—such as one published in the British Museum Series (Vol. 1, Plate 68, No. 1)—mention both Nabonidus and Belshazzar together, supporting the biblical picture of Belshazzar ruling as co-regent in Babylon at the time of its fall.
The Chest of Silver Represents Medo–Persia (539-331 B.C.)
“But after you shall arise another kingdom inferior to yours; then another, a third kingdom of bronze, which shall rule over all the earth.” (Daniel 2:39, NKJV)
The “Chest of Silver” in Daniel’s vision represents the Medo–Persian Empire, the kingdom that followed Babylon. Daniel 2:39 explains that this kingdom would be inferior to Babylon, yet it would succeed it in power. Daniel 5:28 confirms that Babylon’s dominion ended and was divided, being given to the Medes and Persians. Daniel 8:4 describes the empire’s aggressive expansion, symbolized by a ram pushing in multiple directions, while Daniel 8:20 explicitly identifies the ram as the kings of Media and Persia, showing both the unity and reach of this powerful empire.
“The reference to silver (see Daniel 2:32) also alludes to the use of silver in the taxation system of the Medo-Persian Empire.” See Gerhard Pfandl, Daniel: The Seer of Babylon, p. 27; cf. Herodotus, Histories, Book 3, Chapters 89–117.
The Thighs of Bronze Represents Greece (331-168 B.C.)
The “Belly and Thighs of Bronze” in Daniel 2 represent the Greek Empire under Alexander the Great, the kingdom that rose after Medo–Persia. Daniel 2:39 reveals that this third kingdom would “rule over all the earth,” pointing to the sweeping conquests of Greece. Daniel 8 provides even more detail: the goat in Daniel 8:5–8 symbolizes the swift rise of Greece, moving with such speed that “it touched not the ground.” The large horn represents Alexander the Great, whose sudden death at age 32 is portrayed in Daniel 8:8 when the prominent horn is “broken.” After his death, the empire did not remain united; instead, four horns arose in its place, symbolizing the division of Greece among Alexander’s four major generals—Ptolemy, Antigonus, Seleucus, and Lysimachus. Daniel 8:21 explicitly identifies the goat as “the king of Greece,” confirming that the bronze kingdom of Daniel’s prophecy refers to the Greek Empire and its powerful but short-lived dominance.
“The reference to bronze corresponds fittingly to the Greek Empire, known for its widespread use of bronze weaponry and armor. Virgil describes Greek warriors with bronze helmets and bronze-covered armor” (Aeneid 7.742–743).
The Legs of Iron Represents Rome (168 B.C - A.D. 476)
The “Legs of Iron” represent the Roman Empire, the fourth kingdom in Daniel’s prophecy. Daniel 2:40 describes this kingdom as strong as iron—able to crush, break, and subdue all others. Historically, Rome fits this description perfectly, becoming the longest-lasting and most dominant empire of the ancient world. Its unmatched military strength, disciplined armies, and legal system allowed it to rule vast territories stretching across Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Unlike the previous empires that fell quickly, Rome endured for centuries, breaking nations and absorbing them into its structure. The imagery of iron reflects Rome’s unmatched power and its ability to crush opposition, making it the most formidable of the kingdoms in the metallic statue shown to Nebuchadnezzar.
“As historian Edward Gibbon observed, ‘…the images of gold, or silver, or brass … that might serve to represent the nations or their kings, were successively broken by the iron monarchy of Rome.’” (Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 3, p. 634)
The Feet of Iron and Clay Represents Divided Europe (A.D 476-Present)
The feet and toes of iron mixed with clay represent the final phase of earthly kingdoms following the fall of Rome. Daniel 2:41–43 explains that this kingdom would be “divided,” partly strong like iron and partly brittle like clay. History confirms this exactly: after the Western Roman Empire collapsed in AD 476, Europe fragmented into various kingdoms and tribes—some strong and stable, others weak and unstable. Efforts to reunite Europe into a single empire repeatedly failed, perfectly fulfilling the prophecy: “they will mingle with the seed of men, but they will not cleave one to another” (Daniel 2:43). The mixture of iron and clay illustrates a political landscape characterized by temporary alliances, intermarriages among royal families, and numerous attempts at unification, none of which resulted in lasting unity. This final divided condition continues to this day, demonstrating the precision of Daniel’s vision and pointing forward to the establishment of God’s eternal kingdom described in Daniel 2:44.
Many scholars throughout history have recognized the prophetic accuracy of Daniel chapter 2. One of them, Bishop Thomas Newton, carefully traced how the four empires described in Daniel matched the rise and fall of Babylon, Medo–Persia, Greece, and Rome. In his Dissertations on the Prophecies, Newton noted that the continued division of Europe after the fall of Rome — exactly as Daniel foresaw — stands as powerful evidence that biblical prophecy is rooted in real history rather than imagination.
7. Prophetic-Historical Evidence — Jesus’ Foretelling of World Events (Matthew 24)
In Matthew 24—often called the Olivet Discourse—Jesus delivered a public sermon outlining future events that would unfold both in the near term and across human history. What makes this passage remarkable is not only its scope, but the way its details align with documented historical events.
Jesus spoke of wars and rumors of wars, famines, pestilences, false messiahs, widespread persecution, and—most strikingly—the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple. These statements were made decades before the events occurred and were recorded in documents circulating long before their fulfillment.
“Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be famines and earthquakes in various places.” (Matthew 24:7, NIV)
Historically, the first century saw multiple famines (Acts 11:28 records one during the reign of Claudius), widespread disease, and political unrest throughout the Roman Empire. In the centuries that followed, history has been marked by repeated large-scale wars—including the world wars of the 20th century—fulfilling the pattern Jesus described rather than a single isolated event.
Jesus also warned of false messiahs and false prophets, individuals claiming divine authority or salvation power:
“For many will come in my name, claiming, ‘I am the Messiah,’ and will deceive many.”
(Matthew 24:5, NIV)
History records numerous messianic claimants both before and after Jesus, especially in times of crisis. This recurring phenomenon aligns closely with His warning.
The most specific and verifiable element of Matthew 24 is Jesus’ prediction concerning Jerusalem and the Temple:
“Truly I tell you, not one stone here will be left on another; every one will be thrown down.” (Matthew 24:2, NIV)
In A.D. 70, Roman general Titus led an army that besieged Jerusalem, destroyed the city, and burned the Temple—an event recorded by the Jewish historian Josephus, who was an eyewitness to the war (The Jewish War, Book VI). The Temple has never been rebuilt since. This fulfillment occurred within the lifetime of Jesus’ contemporaries, exactly as He indicated.
Jesus Himself affirmed the absolute reliability of His words when He declared:
“Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will never pass away.” (Matthew 24:35 , NIV)
The destruction of Jerusalem stands as a powerful historical reminder that what Christ speaks always comes to pass.
Many scholars throughout history have pointed to Matthew 24 as one of the clearest examples of fulfilled prophecy. Bishop Thomas Newton observed that Jesus’ prediction of Jerusalem’s destruction was fulfilled in such exact detail that it stands as a strong confirmation of His divine authority. In his Dissertations on the Prophecies, Newton explained that the famine, siege, burning of the Temple, and total devastation of the city all occurred exactly as Christ foretold long before the events took place. For Newton, such precise correspondence between prophecy and history demonstrated that the Scriptures were not the product of human guesswork, but the unfolding of God’s revealed truth.
For skeptics, this may initially appear as a remarkable prediction. For Christians, it functions as prophecy—because Jesus did not merely foresee events, but tied them to divine judgment, moral accountability, and His own authority. Either way, the accuracy of these statements demands explanation.
If Jesus was correct about the fall of Jerusalem—a highly unlikely event given the Temple’s central importance—then His credibility is significantly strengthened. And if His credibility is strengthened, then His claims about God, the resurrection, and eternal life deserve serious consideration.
Taken together, Matthew 24 presents a convergence of historical verification, long-term global patterns, and fulfilled near-term events. This convergence supports the conclusion that Jesus was not merely a moral teacher, but someone speaking with authority beyond ordinary human insight—pointing once again toward the reality of God.
Conclusion
The existence of God is supported by:
- the origin of the universe,
- the fine-tuning of natural laws,
- the reality of objective morality,
- solid historical evidence,
- and the enduring power of human experience.
While atheism claims there is no God, the evidence points toward a Divine Creator who is powerful, intelligent, and personal.
Ultimately, faith is not blind—it is a response to overwhelming evidence that God is real, active, and involved in human history.
May this article strengthen your faith and equip you to share the hope and truth found in God with others, lovingly and confidently.
It is also important to remember that God is Spirit (John 4:24). A spiritual, immaterial Being cannot be placed under a microscope, scanned by a machine, or measured in a laboratory. Science works with the physical world—things that can be observed, tested, and repeated. God, being the Creator of the physical world, is not limited to the tools of the physical sciences.
This is why science and faith are not enemies. They address different but complementary questions:
- Science asks, “What is the universe and how does it work?”
- Faith and theology ask, “Why does the universe exist at all, and what is its purpose?”
A full picture of reality requires both. Science describes the creation; faith reveals the Creator. Science explains the mechanisms of life; God explains the purpose of life.
Ultimately, faith is not blind—it is a reasoned response to overwhelming evidence that God is real, active, and involved in human history.
May this article strengthen your faith and equip you to lovingly and confidently share the hope and truth found in God with others.
References
Below are general references commonly cited in philosophical, historical, and academic discussions on God’s existence.
Cosmological Argument / Universe Origin
- Craig, William Lane. Reasonable Faith: Christian Truth and Apologetics. Crossway.
- Craig, William Lane. “The Kalam Cosmological Argument.” Oxford University Press.
- Davies, Paul. The Goldilocks Enigma: Why Is the Universe Just Right for Life?
- Hawking, Stephen & Penrose, Roger. The Nature of Space and Time.
- Vilenkin, Alexander. Many Worlds in One: The Search for Other Universes.
- Newton, Isaac. The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Translated by Andrew Motte. Revised by Florian Cajori. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1934.
Fine-Tuning of the Universe
- Collins, Robin. “The Teleological Argument.” The Blackwell Companion to Natural Theology.
- Rees, Martin. Just Six Numbers: The Deep Forces That Shape the Universe.
- Barrow, John & Tipler, Frank. The Anthropic Cosmological Principle.
- Susskind, Leonard. The Cosmic Landscape: String Theory and the Illusion of Intelligent Design.
- Hawking, Stephen, and Leonard Mlodinow. The Grand Design. London: Bantam/Transworld Publishers, 2010.
- Atkins, Peter. Creation Revisited. London: Penguin, 1994.
Moral Argument
- Lewis, C. S. Mere Christianity.
- Adams, Robert. Finite and Infinite Goods: A Framework for Ethics.
- Craig, William Lane. “The Moral Argument.” Blackwell Companion to Natural Theology.
- Ruse, Michael. “Evolutionary Ethics: A Phoenix Arisen.” Science.
Historical Evidence for Jesus / Resurrection
- Habermas, Gary & Licona, Michael. The Case for the Resurrection of Jesus.
- Wright, N. T. The Resurrection of the Son of God.
- Ehrman, Bart D. Did Jesus Exist? The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth.
- Flavius Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews (extra-biblical reference to Jesus).
- Tacitus. Annals, Book 15 (reference to Christ and execution under Pontius Pilate).
Philosophy and General Arguments for God
- Plantinga, Alvin. God, Freedom, and Evil.
- Plantinga, Alvin. Warranted Christian Belief.
- Swinburne, Richard. The Existence of God.
- J. P. Moreland. Scaling the Secular City.
Historical Context
- Josephus, Flavius. The Jewish War. Book VI.
- Tacitus. Histories.
- Newton, Thomas. Dissertations on the Prophecies, Which Have Remarkably Been Fulfilled, and at This Time Are Fulfilling in the World. Vol. 1. London, 1754.
Prophecy of Daniel 2
- British Museum Series. British Museum Series. Vol. 1, Plate 68, No. 1.
- Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Vol. 3. London: Strahan & Cadell, 1788.
- Herodotus. The Histories. Translated by George Rawlinson. London: John Murray, 1858.
- Newton, Thomas. Dissertations on the Prophecies. Vol. 1. London: J. and R. Tonson, 1754.
- Prideaux, Humphrey. The Old and New Testament Connected in the History of the Jews. Vol. 1. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1858.
- Rawlinson, George. The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World. Vol. 2. London: John Murray, 1871.
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